Synopsis:

        Karl Barth (May 10, 1886 ~ December 10, 1968) was born in Basel, Switzerland. Probably the single most influential Christian thinker of the twentieth century, the Swiss Reformed theologian, pastor and professor was described by many to be in the same class as Augustine of Hippo, Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Friedrich Schleiermacher. Almost all twentieth-century theologians had interacted with his work in some respect. Barth’s major contribution lies in his original theology, which produced large volumes of books, papers, and articles. His most important and comprehensive work is likely a set of books called Church Dogmatics. This thirteen-volume magnum opus takes up Barth’s theology systematically. It is the most thorough expression of Barthian theology and its primary propagator for all future generations to come. Church Dogmatics is divided into four volumes: I. Prolegomena, the doctrine of the Word of God; II. The Doctrine of God; III. Creation; and IV. Reconciliation. A planned fifth volume on the subject of redemption remained unwritten. Long after Barth’s death up to this day, people continued to discuss and teach his unique views through lectures and literature in academic and religious settings. This tremendous impact upon Christendom and the secular theological and philosophical sectors will likely carry on indefinitely. He is dubbed as the Father of Neo-Orthodox movement, though a term that he did not identify himself with. While Barth’s concepts have been monumental, certain fundamental aspects do differ significantly with Protestant evangelical orthodoxy. This paper will attempt to compare and contrast the main differences succinctly. It will begin with a brief biography of Barth’s life, for it is hardly possible to isolate and understand one’s ideologies fully apart from the sway of his/her upbringing and background circumstances. Then it will describe Barth’s approach to some of the central tenets of Christianity, and highlight their similarities and diverging points with the traditional evangelical faith. Some conclusions will be drawn from the content to provide an overall evaluation of his life and work, and the implications and applications thereof.

Biography:

        Karl Barth grew up in a deeply religious home. His father, Fritz Barth, was a distinguished orthodox New Testament scholar and professor. Thus, the young Barth developed a strong interest in theological studies as he moved towards the pastorate. However, his education was under heavy liberalism, such as the influence of Adolf von Harnack and Wilhelm Herrmann. Unsatisfying experiences in his early pastorate gradually led to a major reappraisal of his former liberal theological views during the First World War years. Figures and other factors such as Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Soren Kierkegaard and the philosophical existentialism, Hermann Friedrich Kohlbrugge, the Blumhardts, the great Reformers, the German and Swiss Religious Socialist movement, the Biblical Realism movement, and above all, the Bible itself, had dispelled Barth of his Protestant liberalism. This significant change of theological position resulted in the epic commentary to the Epistle to the Romans, first published in 1918 and revised with following editions. This work not only introduced new terminologies, but most of all, it reembraced the age-old themes of historical Protestantism: God’s transcendence, sovereign grace, justification by faith, and miracles. Regardless of whether his new beliefs conform to strict evangelical orthodoxy, nevertheless, they were in direct opposition to the then prevailing liberal Christianity in Germany. At this point, he also began studying Anselm of Canterbury. Barth’s new insight was not a dialectical theology but came to be known as the “Word of God.” This led to his break with Emil Brunner and Rudolf Bultmann. Barth also rejected natural theology at once.

        When Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party rose to power, Barth was expelled from Germany in 1935. This deportation brought him back to Switzerland, where he spent twenty-six years teaching at the University of Basel. It was a tremendously prolific period for Barth. He also played an important role theologically during the Second World War. The epic writing of Church Dogmatics was left unfinished when he died in 1968. Barth also preached regularly alongside his fruitful literary works. Many from Europe and all around the world came to sit in his lectures and participate in his seminars. Barth retired from fulltime position at the age of seventy-five in 1962 and travelled to the United States giving lectures and enjoying leisure. He received an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Chicago, along with many other rewards and titles. Barth’s health deteriorated in the last few years of his life. Moreover, despite worldwide fame, he faced sharp criticism from both sides of his theological views and found himself increasingly isolated. On one side were the Conservative scholars who especially opposed his idea of the “Word of God”. On the other end of the theological spectrum, some protested that he had too narrow a conception of the Biblical writings and the doctrine of revelation. Nonetheless, Barth always has had answers and his keen perceptions are lacking in many contemporary theologians. He rejected both secular theology and the Death of God theologies that were on the rise. One thing that encouraged Barth greatly was the result of the Second Vatican Council (1962 ~ 1965), in which he was an invited observer. The final phase of Barth’s life was concentrated on dogmatic works, and it was also happy and reverent.

In the remainder of this paper, a discussion on Barth’s theology will be based on Church Dogmatics. This approach was chosen because he himself commented that he should be beset judged theologically by this writing inasmuch as its assumptions, emphases, and basic understanding are different from that of the earlier writings. It is also the most systematized and coherent theological of Barth. Hence, topics are introduced below will be in the order of Church Dogmatics: the doctrine of the Word of God, the doctrine of God, the doctrine of creation, and the doctrine of reconciliation.

The Doctrine of the Word of God:

        “Theology,” to Barth, is the scientific self-examination of the Church with respect to her discourse about God. It is a field like all other sciences, yet it must be inclusive of them and not subject to them. In other words, theology cannot fall under the sub-categories of, for example, philosophy or history. The Word is God’s words to man.[1] The Word of God has three forms: the Word revealed, the Word written, and the Word proclaimed. It is a spiritual, personal, and sovereign declaration. The Word of God, thus, is God’s act and it is a mystery. The Word of God is the fundamental basis of true theology. The Word is God Himself in His self-revelation. It is a self-revelation of the triune God. The Doctrine of the Trinity is God’s sovereign self-revelation. It is the root of all doctrines, whereby man cannot know anything about God apart from His self-revelation. God cannot be known from nature, history, philosophy, science, or even the Bible, but from revelation itself. God is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in unity of essence. The Incarnation is the objective reality of the revelation of God. Jesus Christ is the divine revelation. This truth is attested by both the Old and New Testaments. Jesus, very God and very Man, is the eternal Word. Jesus Christ is the Word revealed. The Scripture is the Word written. The Bible is a witness to the revealed Word, not a direct revelation of God. It bears witness to Jesus Christ and the historical events surrounding Him. Though its form may be human in origin, but since its theme is the divine revelation of God, God does speak through it. It is, in a secondary sense, a unique book distinct from all other books. However, Barth argues that the Scripture, with its humanity, is fallible. It would, therefore, require the miracle of the Holy Spirit to bring fallible human words to be the Word of God once again. In this regard, the Bible alone bears direct and absolute authority in the Church. Thirdly, the Word of God is the Word proclaimed in the proclamation of the Church. In practical terms, the Word of God is the Word preached by man. The declaration of the Word is not in itself the Word of God and self-evident. Only as God commissions and empowers the individual and Church does the proclamation becomes the Word of God. It cannot contradict the Word revealed, Jesus Christ, as well as the Word written, the Holy Scripture. Hence, obedience, prayer, and the purity of the preacher and his/her words, are all prerequisites of the Word proclaimed. Dogmatics includes the pursuit of both doctrines and ethics. The Church has the responsibility to proclaim the Word of God.

The Doctrine of God:

        According to Barth, God is knowable because He is known when the Holy Spirit fulfills His Word and this revelation is received by faith and obedience by mankind. This knowledge of God is certain and objective, although faith is required. It is wholly God’s act of sovereign grace to reveal Himself. Through His divine enablement, the knowability of God becomes a reality. It is also necessary for Man, on the other hand, to prepare himself to receive this knowledge. This readiness, however, is not man’s own effort, but a readiness of Jesus Christ as the Incarnate Lord. Since Jesus Christ is for mankind, man is able to know God through Him in His initiative grace. One’s knowledge of God can be certain because God is known by God, although God’s hiddenness requires faith. When God’s incomprehensibility derives from His self-revelation, faith gives us a real knowledge of God. Even with all the humanly imperfections, since the grace of God is of God, one can be secured to know the authenticity of the knowledge of God. This fact is established by the divine reality of Jesus Christ—the Word of God revealed. In terms of the reality of God, God is. God is in His act as the living God. God engages in His own actions. God’s act is His loving extension to human kind, apart from all ulterior motives or necessities. God is His own, He in His act is the free God. He is the absolute person, as He cannot be grouped with other beings. The attributes of God are love, grace, holiness, mercy, righteousness, freedom, unity, omnipresence, omnipotence, omniscience, omnicausal, and eternal. These characteristics are one in the one perfect God.

        In the Doctrine of God, Barth also discusses the doctrine of Election, which has become one of the most controversial subjects of his theology. Coming from a Reformed tradition, Barth held the notion of Calvin’s double predestination. In his interpretation, however, the object of election and reprobation is not the Adamic Race but Jesus Christ. The God-Man was both divinely elected and reprobated simultaneously. God’s election of humanity and rejection of human sin are both accomplished in Jesus Christ in the Incarnation. This is so because God’s ultimate saving act is in Jesus Christ; in Him is the absolute decree, thus, the object of election and reprobation is not on mankind. Within the election of Jesus is the election of individuals. This comprise of those who accept the truth of the Word of God. The reprobates in Jesus are those who reject the truth. They are the attestation of the false choice of man and the demonstration of the utter hopelessness of life without God’s sovereign saving grace. Yet if Jesus Christ is the only truly rejected one, as Barth argued, then ultimately the reprobated in Him are elected as well. This leads to the inevitable conclusion that all will somehow and sometime be in eternal fellowship with God. When challenged of being a Universalist, Barth neither denied nor concurred. Lastly in reference to the command of God, Barth believes that ethics is referred to the Word of God in responsibility to God’s command. It is God’s sovereign decision that is good. It is also the judgment of God on Jesus Christ and His declaration of His and our righteousness in Him.

The Doctrine of Creation:

Creation is known by God’s witness in the Scriptures. It is only known by faith in Jesus Christ as one sees God as the Creator, and man as creature. Creation is distinct from God. It has a theological content and it provides the external setting for the enactment of the covenant between God and man. Man is the crowning object of creation. It is only through Christ that one can truly see man’s intrinsic value and created purpose. In Jesus Christ, man can relate to God, himself, his fellow creatures, and to time. Man is made in the image of God, both male and female. The Creator’s dealings with mankind, the creature, are called providence. It displays the faithfulness of God in relation to the human race. It expresses God’s fatherly loyalty and lordship to man. These facts are known through the Word of God in via Jesus Christ. Heaven, or the Kingdom of God, is the rule of God, which includes angels. The Kingdom of Darkness is an insubstantial copy of God’s work and will be overthrown by God eventually. God’s command to humanity is man’s sanctification. It relates to ethics and man’s proper relationships with one another. Life on earth is to be respected and fully utilized with a sense of great responsibility, urgency, and joy.

The Doctrine of Reconciliation:

        The context of God as the Reconciler is the fulfillment of the broken covenant. The cause is human sin. Reconciliation is of grace, the sovereign work of God realized in Jesus Christ. He serves in a threefold office as Priest, King, and Prophet towards the lost. Firstly, Jesus is the Lord-Reconciler who became a servant in His priestly work. He fulfilled the demands of God’s justice. Man is completely redeemed by Christ’s atoning work, and justification is by faith alone. In His capacity as the King, Jesus is the servant who became Lord. He was exalted as the risen Lord after the resurrection for humanity through the Holy Spirit. Thirdly, Jesus is the True Witness in His prophetic role. He is the way, the truth, and the life. Christians, in union with their Lord, join in His work as witnesses. The Church’s task, hence, is to bear witness of Christ in lifestyle and speech. To Barth, Jesus Christ is God Himself in the flesh, the God-Man, the self-revelation of God, and the Word of God revealed to mankind.

Evaluation:

        From a cursory glance of Barth’s central doctrines of the Christian faith, they seem to be reasonably orthodox, except for the Doctrine of the Word of God. The Trinitarian view of the Godhead is firmly believed by him. Barth prefers to use the term “mode of Being” over “person” in describing God’s triunity because he felt that “person” is a word inadequate to modern hearers.  Although he might use different terminology and expressions, the essence of God’s triune Being is intact and sound. God exists in a threefold mode of Being as one singular God in God the Father, God the Son Jesus Christ, and God the Holy Spirit. They are co-eternal and co-equal in essence creation, providence and redemption (Genesis 1:26; Deuteronomy 6:4-5; Matthew 28:19; Hebrews 1:8; 1 Corinthians 2:10-11). Consequently, he unmistakably portrayed the deity of Jesus Christ, God’s very essence of in bodily form (John 1:1-5). The miraculous virgin birth of the Savior and His complete sinless and perfect life lived are reaffirmed by Barth (Matthew 1:18-25; Hebrews 4:15). Jesus is the union of complete humanity and divinity in the flesh (Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 2:14). The teachings of Christ are authoritative for the Church today (Matthew 28:20; Acts 20:35; 1 Timothy 6:3). Through the atoning work of Jesus Christ by the Cross of Calvary in His substitutionary sacrifice lies the way and assurance of salvation for all men (Romans 5:10-12). Jesus conquered sin and death and resurrected bodily, ascended to the Father’s right hand, and will one day return to receive His Bride: the Church (Romans 4:25; Acts 2:33; 1 Thessalonians 4:16; Revelation 19:7). The Holy Spirit’s deity is contained in Barth’s work (Psalms 139:7-8). The works of the Spirit are conviction of sin, repentance, regeneration, sanctification, sealing and indwell believers, revealing and glorifying Jesus, bringing unity, guidance, comfort, illumination, assisting in prayer, communion, baptism of the Spirit with enduement of power for witness and service, and distributing the gifts of the Spirit (Joel 2:28-32; John 3:5-8; 14-16; Acts 1:8; Romans 8:26; 1 Corinthians 12:1-7; 2 Corinthians 13:14; Galatians 5:22-23).

        In Barth’s view, mankind is depraved and lost excluding the sovereign grace of God. All have sinned, thus, all need this grace (Romans 3:23). Jesus Christ is the only way, truth and life to the Father (John 14:6). Salvation is through repentance towards God through grace by faith alone in Jesus Christ (Romans 5:1-5; Ephesians 2:8). The benefits of justification from Christ’s atoning work are received through faith alone (Romans 1:17). No merits of man can ever attain righteousness in the sight of God (2 Timothy 1:9). The true born again Christian life is evidenced by the fruit of the Spirit and a holy life (Matthew 7:15-20; Galatians 2:20; 5:22-23). In regard to the Church, Barth rightly focused on her identify and functions. All believers are spiritual priests, and they comprise the Universal Church of Jesus Christ, who is the Head (John 17:20-23; Ephesians 4:3-6; 1 Peter 2:5; Revelation 1:6). She is the pillar and ground of the truth (1 Timothy 3:5). She is to proclaim the Word of God lovingly, boldly, and powerfully (Acts 4:29-31). In the Great Commission, Jesus specifically commanded His Church to preach the Gospel until the ends of the earth, to all nations and creatures (Matthew 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-16; Acts 1:8). The biblical way in which the Gospel is to be propagated is through great love and great divine power of the Spirit (Mark 16:15-20; Acts 10:38; 1 John 3:8; Luke 4:18-20). When the Gospel has reached to the limits of the earth, Jesus will personally and physically return to the world once again to reign in power and glory (Acts 1:11; Matthew 24:30; 1 Thessalonians 4:15-18; 2 Thessalonians 2:1-8). These doctrines are what Barth has acknowledged in their core nature, although minor differences within each are present in various interpretations, methodologies, and applications.

        The strength of Barth’s theological method is his total reliance on revelation, though some conservative theologians may charge him for being overly fideistic. In other words, his theology tends to be less influenced, at least theoretically, by secular philosophical systems and cultures. The content of the Gospel is untainted. As a result, his theology and approach are also highly practical for the Church and the Christian individual. Barth’s method exposed liberalism’s great weakness in trying to deduce God from pure reasons and supposed facts. However, some believe his total rejection of all aspects of natural theology and the role of the rational mind’s processes of revealed truth is extreme. While the intellect of man and all natural sciences should fittingly be secondary in the class of revelation, they are not completely worthless. The Bible seems to be endorsing apologetics as a necessary means in certain occasions (Romans 1:20; Acts 19:9; 1 Peter 3:15), though Barth is correct in that it is never the primary avenue in which the knowledge of God is proliferated to mankind (1 Corinthians 2:4). Other conservative critics have charged Barth with a hyper Christocentrism. This over-emphasis might harm the value of all general revelation of God aside from Jesus Christ (Romans 1:20). It seems that every doctrine is turned into a form of Christology. For example, his doctrine on divine election makes Jesus both the subject and object of predestination, that is, the main recipient of the elect and the reprobate. This view is differentiated from both traditional Calvinistic and Arminianistic predestination, although dissimilarities in minor doctrines such as this do not pertain to orthodoxy standard. Barth’s major departure from orthodoxy is his concept of the Scriptures. Evangelical conservatives obviously disagreed with him in the radical distinction between the “Word of God” and the Bible. The denial of the Bible’s inspiration, inerrancy, and infallibility is the foremost error of the great Swiss theologian. Barth did accept the Bible’s absolute authority. It is to him a revelation in a secondary sense as he attributed it as unique from all other books. Nevertheless, it is only a witness to revelation and not in itself the Word of God in his definition. The inspiration of the Holy Scripture is only used in its contemporary sense by the Spirit. However, from a literary and historical perspective, the Bible contains errors and inaccuracies because it is the product of humans who are subject to imperfections. In the application of the concepts of offense and sovereignty, he even argued the necessity of a fallible Bible. His view of the Scriptures stand in direct opposition with what the Scriptures teaches (2 Timothy 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21). Barth’s other controversial notion is his view of the doctrine of God’s election. In general, Barth embraced the Reformed tradition of double predestination. However, as mentioned before, he differs in purporting that Christ is both the elect and reprobate instead of mankind. Some have accused him that this interpretation will inevitably lead to Universalism. It is important to note, however, that Barth did not deny the existence of hell or the suffering and punishment of those who reject the truth. Barth himself denied Universalism but left open the possibility that all can be saved in the universal grace of God. Excluding the Doctrine of the Word of God, most other problems raised by evangelicals on Barthian theology are only of a non-fundamental nature. Matters such as the classification of the divine attributes of God’s perfections, the significance of creation and the nature of evil, and the details of reconciliation are relatively within biblical confines.

Applications:

        There are many points of value from Barth where the Church and the disciple of Christ can apply to his/her life. His strong emphasis on God’s transcendence clearly defied liberalism and Neo-Protestantism. When one becomes so anthropological and ecclesiological rather than christocentric and God-centered, Christianity becomes a mere hallow religion. The grace of the Triune God expressed in the freedom and love of Him is abundant towards all humanity. He has graciously revealed Himself through the Word of God, namely Jesus Christ, so that the pathway to a relationship with Him throughout eternities is made possible. Barth’s theology constantly highlights the need for the power of the Holy Spirit in witnessing for Christ in deeds and words, and the applications of the Scriptures. His redirecting one’s focus on a pure revelation from God alone serves as an appropriate safeguard against liberalism, higher criticism, and secular philosophies. Despite the fact that some have troubles with Barth’s Christological concentration, it, ironically, is probably his greatest strength and contribution to theology. Countless churches and men and women of God have fallen because they have shifted their focus away from Christ. This applies theologically, relationally, and ecclesiastically. All is well in the end when Christ is lifted up. On the contrary, all is not well when Christ is not the theme of our Christian life and service. This does not make God the Father and Holy Spirit subordinate, but rather glory is given to all the members of the Godhead since Christ is the Mediator between God and man. Lastly, the giant theologians’ repetitive appeal to and exaltation of the virtue of the love of God is immensely biblical and thus encouraging (1 Corinthians 13:1-8; Ephesians 3:14-21; 1 John 4:7-21). Divinity is characterized by the central quality of agape love. Many who encounter Barth and/or his works will find themselves uplifted in spirits.

Conclusion:

        Karl Barth and his particular theological system have been one of the most unique, interesting, and thought-provoking influences in the twentieth-century to both the secular and religious worlds. In the face of growing Christian Liberalism and Neo-Protestantism, his recovery of the awesome transcendence of God is doubtlessly remedial and refreshing to the Body of Christ at large. On all the subjects discussed pertaining to God, Barth pointedly expressed that His love toward the world is wholly and eternally gracious because it is radically free. God’s graciousness in His relationship with the world and mankind is the very essence of the Christian Gospel: the Good News. The triumph of grace is the theme of the revelation of God to mankind—Jesus Christ. He is the God-Man where all theological and practical service must yield and honor. Barth’s most notable weakness lies in his idea of Bible and the Word of God. This is the gravest exodus from orthodoxy, though he still placed heavy significance on the Scripture as a unique, witnessing, and a secondary revelation when illumined by the Holy Spirit. In the final analysis, some fundamentalists and evangelical theologians may dislike him on the doctrinal level because he is not agreeing with them on every point of dogma. On the other hand, man is ultimately only judged by God in the heart and their relationship with Him, and not on the correctness of their mental theological understanding. It is true that the best scenario is to have both the heart and head in perfect submission to the Word of God. However, I believe overall speaking, Barth’s life and work have given the world a godly impact. He has challenged the rigid traditions with new insights and provided God’s kind of love and encouragement to both the Church and the world of lost humanity with his single-hearted devotion to Christ. He had his weaknesses, just like any of us, but it became just another means to underscore the boundless and endless grace of God in praise and adoration. It seems the most proper to conclude this paper with his own words:

“Once a young student asked Barth if he could sum up what was most important about his life's work and theology in just a few words. The question was posed even with gasps from the audience. Barth just thought for a moment and then smiled, "Yes, in the words of a song my mother used to sing me, ‘Jesus loves me, this I know, for the Bible tells me so.’”[2]

Bibliography

Books:

Barth, Karl. Church Dogmatics. New York, NY: T & T Clark Publishers, 2004.

Barth, Karl. Deliverance to the Captives. Zurich, Switzerland: Evangelischer Verlag AG, 1959.

Barth, Karl. God in Action. Manhasset, NY: Round Table Press, 1963.

Bloesch, Donald G. Jesus is Victor—Karl Barth’s Doctrine of Salvation. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1976.

Bruce, F. F., Douglas, J. D., Guthrie, D., Hillyer, N., Millard, A. R., Packer, J. I., Wiseman, D. J. (ed.) New Bible Dictionary (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1982).

Cairns, Earle E. and Douglas, J.D. (ed.) New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1978.

Carson, D. A. and Moo, Douglas J. An Introduction to the New Testament (2^nd edition). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005.

Craig, William Lane. No Easy Answers. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1990.

Deane, Anthony C. The World Christ Knew (Madison, WI: Adult Christian Education Foundation, 1953).

Dyrness, William. Themes in Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1977.

Eusebius. The History of the Church. London: Penguin Books, 1989.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity Volume 1. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 1984.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity Volume 2. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985.

Grenz, Stanley J. and Olson, Roger E. 20^th-Century Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1992.

Grudem, Wayne A. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000.

Harrison, Everett F. A Short Life of Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1968.

Hughes, Philip E. (ed.) Creative Minds in Contemporary Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1969.

Jungel Eberhard. The Doctrine of the Trinity—God’s Being is in Becoming. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Kaiser Jr., Walter C. (ed.) Classical Evangelical Essays in Old Testament Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company, 1972.

Kaiser Jr., Walter C. Toward an Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 1952.

MacArthur, John. Why One Way?Nashville, TN: W Publishing Group, 2002.

McDowell, Josh. The New Evidence That Demands a Verdict. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1999.

Muller, Roland. The Messenger, The Message, and The Community. CanBooks, 2006.

Noll, Mark A. Turning Points—Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity (second edition). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2000.

Shelley, Bruce L. Church History in Plain Language (second edition). Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 1995.

Strobel, Lee. The Case for Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1998.

Strobel, Lee. The Case for Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000.

Taylor, Daniel. Is God Intolerant?Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2003.

The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1993.

Wikipedia. Retrieved December 2008 from http://www.wikipedia.org/.

Annotated Bibles:

Hayford, Jack W. et al. (ed.) New Spirit-Filled Life® Bible (New King James Version). Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 2002.

MacArthur, John et al. (ed.) The MacArthur Study Bible (New King James Version). Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 1997.

Radmacher, Earl D. et al (ed.) Nelson’s NKJV Study Bible. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1997.

Stamps, Donald C. et al. (ed.) NIV Life in the Spirit Study Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003.

Yu, Timothy et al. (ed.) The Chinese Study Bible (Popular Edition—Chinese Union Version). Hong Kong: The Rock House Publishers, Ltd., 1998.